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A second 1521 campaign to the gulf coast was also highly successful. The Toltec culture (/ ˈ t ɒ l t ɛ k /) is a pre-Colombian Mesoamerican culture that ruled a state centered in Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico in the early post-classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (ca. 1–19. Aztec, self name Culhua-Mexica, Nahuatl-speaking people who in the 15th and early 16th centuries ruled a large empire in what is now central and southern Mexico.The Aztecs are so called from Aztlán (“White Land”), an allusion to their origins, probably in northern Mexico. The monthly rituals involved the entire population as rituals were performed in each household, in the calpolli temples and in the main sacred precinct. Central in the religious practice was the offering of sacrifices to the deities, as a way of thanking or paying for the continuation of the cycle of life. Each 20-day month was named after the specific ritual festival that began the month, many of which contained a relation to the agricultural cycle. The gods were often depicted, and they themselves often resembled animals of various kinds. 154–163. Xochiquetzal is known as the goddess that seduces men, this deity was related to sexual desires and sexual activities. There were also dramatic presentations that included players, musicians and acrobats. Additionally the major gods had many alternative manifestations or aspects, creating small families of gods with related aspects. Particularly important for agricultural production in the valley was the construction of chinampas on the lake, artificial islands that allowed the conversion of the shallow waters into highly fertile gardens that could be cultivated year round. He began his rule in standard fashion, conducting a coronation campaign to demonstrate his skills as a leader. Due to the difficulty of conserving feathers, fewer than ten pieces of original Aztec featherwork exist today. from Trema micrantha or Ficus aurea), it was also produced on ceramics and carved in wood and stone. In Mesoamerican culture, Tonatiuh (Nahuatl: Tōnatiuh [toːˈnatiʍ] "Movement of the Sun") was an Aztec sun deity of the daytime sky and ruled the cardinal direction of east. The República de españoles included not just Europeans, but also Africans and mixed-race castas. Michael E. Smith gives a somewhat smaller figure of 212,500 inhabitants of Tenochtitlan based on an area of 1,350 hectares (3,300 acres) and a population density of 157 inhabitants per hectare. [59], Nahuas was of the Aztec and Toltec culture. There were several different genres of cuicatl (song): Yaocuicatl was devoted to war and the god(s) of war, Teocuicatl to the gods and creation myths and to adoration of said figures, xochicuicatl to flowers (a symbol of poetry itself and indicative of the highly metaphorical nature of a poetry that often utilized duality to convey multiple layers of meaning). He states that the "principal center, or navel, where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect, that is, the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the Underworld begin and the four directions of the universe originate, is the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan." Mexican scholars who pursued research on the Aztecs in the late nineteenth century were Francisco Pimentel, Antonio García Cubas, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Joaquín García Icazbalceta, and Francisco del Paso y Troncoso contributing significantly to the nineteenth-century development of Mexican scholarship on the Aztecs. Produced between 1545–1576 in the form of an ethnographic encyclopedia written bilingually in Spanish and Nahuatl, by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún and indigenous informants and scribes, it contains knowledge about many aspects of precolonial society from religion, calendrics, botany, zoology, trades and crafts and history. Many smaller stone sculptures depicting deities also exist. It is difficult to translate the word cuiloni as the documents from the Aztec Empire mainly are from the Spanish, who viewed homosexuality as sinful behavior, and thus wrote about these unfamiliar gender identities in a negative way, oftentimes employing discriminatory and vulgar language. `` feather painting. decorated the streets and building sides 1521 campaign to the lower working classes in general was. Had considerable autonomy to regulate their local affairs burnished ceramics with a ritual as... For what historian D.A and shores surrounding Lake Texcoco, estimates range 300,000... 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